![]() Cataract surgery is the removal of the natural lens of the eye (also called "crystalline lens") that has developed an opacification, which is referred to as a cataract. Download 2006 chevy chevrolet aveo owner manual pursuing for do you really need this book of it takes me 66 hours just to obtain the right download link and. Rapid advances in pathogenetic insight, diagnostic and therapeutic modalities, and basic research continuously influence the state of the art in ophthalmology. This. Looking for books on ophthalmology? Check our section of free e-books and guides on ophthalmology now! This page contains list of freely available E-books, Online. ![]() ![]() Ophthalmology - Wikipedia. This article is about the branch of medicine that deals with eyes. For other eyecare profession, see Optometry. Ophthalmology ( or )[1] is the branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the eyeball and orbit.[2] An ophthalmologist is a specialist in medical and surgical eye disease. Their credentials include an M. D. or D. O. degree in medicine, followed by an additional four years of residency. Additional training may be sought through a fellowship in a particular specialty of eye pathology. Ophthalmologists are allowed to medically treat eye disease, implement laser therapy, and perform incisional surgery when warranted. Etymology[edit]The Greek roots of the word ophthalmology are ὀφθαλμός (ophthalmos, "eye") and - λoγία (- logia, "study, discourse"),[4][5] i. The discipline applies to all animal eyes, whether human or not, since the practice and procedures are quite similar with respect to disease processes, while differences in anatomy or disease prevalence, whether subtle or substantial, may differentiate the two.[citation needed]History[edit]Ancient India[edit]. Statue of Sushruta (सुश्रुत) in Patanjali Yogpeeth, Haridwar. The Indian surgeon Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita in Sanskrit in about 8. BC which describes 7. His description of cataract surgery was more akin to extracapsular lens extraction than to couching.[8] He has been described as the first cataract surgeon.[9][1. Before Hippocrates[edit]The pre- Hippocratics largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than empiricism.[1. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by Alcamaeon and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain by a tube. Aristotle advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He and his contemporaries further put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull. Rufus of Ephesus recognised a more modern eye, with conjunctiva, extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye.[1. Rufus was the first to recognise a two- chambered eye, with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with an egg white- like substance). The Greek physician Galen remedied some mistakes including the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a posterior chamber. Though this model was a roughly correct modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Still, it was not advanced upon again until after Vesalius. A ciliary body was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid, and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid, as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, but he dissected the optic nerve and saw that it was solid. He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the tear ducts. Middle Eastern ophthalmology[edit]Medieval Islamic Arabic and Persian scientists (unlike their classical predecessors) considered it normal to combine theory and practice, including the crafting of precise instruments, and therefore found it natural to combine the study of the eye with the practical application of that knowledge.[1. Hunain ibn Ishaq, and others beginning with the medieval Arabic period, taught that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye.[1. This idea was propagated until the end of the 1. Ibn al- Haytham (Alhazen), an Arab scientist with Islamic beliefs, wrote extensively on optics and the anatomy of the eye in his Book of Optics (1. Ibn al- Nafis, an Arabic native of Damascus, wrote a large textbook, The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, divided into two parts, On the Theory of Ophthalmology and Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs.[1. François Pourfour du Petit. Watercolour of a nun with a bleeding eye, Arzneibuch Compendium of popular medicine and surgery, 1. In the 1. 7th and 1. Malpighi, and microscopes by van Leeuwenhoek, preparations for fixing the eye for study by Ruysch, and later the freezing of the eye by Petit. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the posterior chamber, and of course the nature of the retina. In 1. 72. 2, van Leeuwenhoek noted the existence of rods and cones,[citation needed] though they were not properly discovered until Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus in 1. Georg Joseph Beer (1. Austrian ophthalmologist and leader of the First Viennese School of Medicine. He introduced a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).[1. Ophthalmic surgery in Great Britain[edit]The first ophthalmic surgeon in Great Britain was John Freke, appointed to the position by the Governors of St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1. A major breakthrough came with the appointment of Baron Michael Johann Baptist de Wenzel (1. German who became oculist to King George III of England in 1. His skill at removing cataracts legitimized the field.[1. The first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened in 1. London; it is now called Moorfields Eye Hospital. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology (now part of the University College London) by Sir Stewart Duke Elder established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.[1. The prominent opticians of the late 1. Ernst Abbe (1. 84. Zeiss Jena factories in Germany where he developed numerous optical instruments. Hermann von Helmholtz (1. They both made theoretical calculations on image formation in optical systems and had also studied the optics of the eye. Central Europe[edit]Numerous ophthalmologists fled Germany after 1. Nazis began to persecute those of Jewish descent. A representative leader was Joseph Igersheimer (1. He fled to Turkey in 1. As one of eight emigrant directors in the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Istanbul, he built a modern clinic and trained students. In 1. 93. 9, he went to the United States, becoming a professor at Tufts University.[1. Polish ophthalmology dates to the 1. The Polish Ophthalmological Society was founded in 1. A representative leader was Adam Zamenhof (1. Nazis in 1. 94. 0.[2. Zofia Falkowska (1. Faculty and Clinic of Ophthalmology in Warsaw from 1. Professional requirements[edit]Ophthalmologists are physicians (MD/MS after MBBS or D. O./DOMS/ DNB, not OD or BOptom) who have completed a college degree, medical school, and residency in ophthalmology. Ophthalmology training equips eye specialists to provide the full spectrum of eye care, including the prescription of glasses and contact lenses, medical treatment, and complex microsurgery. In many countries, ophthalmologists also undergo additional specialized training in one of the many subspecialties. Ophthalmology was the first branch of medicine to offer board certification, now a standard practice among all specialties. Australia and New Zealand[edit]In Australia and New Zealand, the FRACO/FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. It is a very competitive speciality to enter training and has a closely monitored and structured training system in place over the five years of postgraduate training. Overseas- trained ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST/CCT are usually deemed to be comparable. Bangladesh[edit]In Bangladesh to be an ophthalmologist the basic degree is an MBBS. Then they have to obtain a postgraduate degree or diploma in specialty ophthalmology. In Bangladesh, these are Diploma in Ophthalmology, Diploma in Community Ophthalmology, Fellow or Member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in ophthalmology, and Master of Science in ophthalmology. In Canada, an ophthalmology residency after medical school is undertaken.
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